A neutrino is a tiny subatomic particle.

It's also one of the most abundant particles in the universe.

In fact, there are roughly 65 billion neutrinos passing through your body right now.

Did you notice them? 

No?

That's because neutrinos barely interact with matter, which makes them really difficult to detect.

To detect anything you can't "see" like a neutrino, scientists usually use one of the four fundamental forces to "see" how a particle interacts with matter. 

These four fundamental forces are: the electromagnetic force, gravity, the weak force and the strong force.

Neutrinos have a neutral charge and a very small mass. So, you can't detect them with the electromagnetic force (because they have no charge) or easily detect them with gravity (because they are so light and tiny).

And neutrinos do not interact with the strong force (which bonds protons and neutrons together in an atom's nucleus) because they simply do not feel it.

Neutrinos are only affected by the weak force, which has a tiny range and is involved in the decay of nuclear particles. The problem is, the chances of a neutrino interacting with the weak force are incredibly small.

This post explains the (quite frankly, bonkers) process of detecting neutrinos rather well.

This year, we could see some exciting neutrino news as a huge, extraordinary machine called KATRIN (KArlsruhe TRItium Neutrino) will try to determine the mass of the neutrino once and for all. This is a lovely article all about the experiment.

In fact, there are quite a few neutrino-based experiments going on around the world: here's a list of the lot.

This is an excellent series of in-depth articles from Berkeley that give more details about neutrinos and the implications of neutrino mass.

And if you want to find out more about the experiments that hinted neutrino mass could explain why we live in a matter universe, check out this article from New Scientist.

The meteoric rise (and fall) of Bitcoin has peaked the world's interest in the technology behind it - blockchain. But the implications and applications for blockchain technology go way beyond cryptocurrencies...

For once, the word "blockchain" actually describes this technology quite well.

A "block" is simply a record of new transactions. This could be a record of a cryptocurrency purchase or medical records or any chunk of data.

Once a transaction is completed, the "block" is encrypted and added to a "chain".

The encryption process is known as "hashing" and it's carried out by lots of computers. If they all agree on the answer, each block gets a unique digital signature.

This creates a chain of encrypted blocks.

Or, a blockchain.

Each block is stored chronologically and the chain cannot be altered or tampered with, only added to. And, when a change does happen, the blockchain is updated for everyone in the network at the same time.

You can only make a change if you have a private key (aka password) to access the block.

A popular analogy is to think of blockchain as a Google doc and traditional data storage as an old-school Microsoft Word doc. 

The Google doc can be simultaneously viewed and edited by everyone with access to that document.

With a Word doc, you have to send the document to one person at a time, ask them to make a change and then send it back before you send it to the next person.

Blockchain is a completely different way to store data, compared to the traditional process of storing your data in a big central database.

Using blockchain, data is distributed across a network of computers and not in one place. Here’s another useful explanation from online forum Bitcoin Talk:

Blockchain is basically giving two people a safe way to exchange data, without the need for a third party (such as a bank) to verify the transaction. 

If you think about traditional transactions, there are three parties involved: the owner (who holds an asset), the market (everyone who is interested and/or able to buy that asset) and the regulator (who makes sure the owner and market follow the rules when a transaction happens).

With blockchain, we don't need a regulator as the network of computers validates a transaction.

​This could have wide-reaching implications for banks - and a wealth of other industries too.

While blockchain is synonymous with Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies at the moment, there are many different ways it could be used.

​A recent UK government report on blockchain technologies provides a good overview and examples of the use of blockchain, as does this article from The Conversation.

Last night, I gave a keynote talk at Nottingham Trent University on behalf of the society for freelancers and the self-employed - IPSE. The Freelancing for Students event is part of a new series and is designed to give students across all disciplines top tips and advice on how to successfully launch a career as a freelancer.

A terrifying number of people turned up, but it wasn't that scary at all. I was joined by Di Tunney from The Creative Quarter Company and there was a great panel discussion with three fellow freelancers, all addressing the challenges of finding work as a freelancer.

The advice we all gave was, rather spookily, very similar (and without seeing the other talks prior to the event, I promise). So, here are the highlights for anyone eager to kick off a freelance career:

You may assume that if you generalise then you'll have a larger selection of work to choose from and get more work. Somewhat counter-intuitively, the opposite is true.

When I set up as a freelance writer, I didn't push my science and technology skills to the front of my work. I was pitching for generic work and against a pool of generic writers. As a result, I didn't stand out from the crowd and, if I did manage to win some work, it wasn't very well paid.

Then, I set up as "the freelancer who gets tech". Yes, it's a cheesy tagline but it succinctly tells you what I do. Wrapped up in that personal branding is my USP: I've worked in the science and technology sectors I write about, giving me a unique level of experience that other writers cannot offer.

So, what's the message here? Find out what makes you unique. Push it to the front of everything you do.

If you can identify and shout your specialism from the rooftops, more work and more pay will come your way.

You'll become an expert in your field and the go-to person for that specialism. People know what you offer, and you'll be their first port of call as a result.

Once you have your specialism, make sure you don't take a blinkered approach to your work. If an unusual job offer comes in and it's outside of your comfort zone, go for it.

Speaking in the panel discussion, Chantal Duarte, sports psychologist and project management specialist freelancer, echoed this sentiment and told the students to have confidence in their skill set.

​You're not "just" a student.

​An example from my experience is when I was approached to do a spot of ghostwriting work for a prominent CIO. Initially, I hesitated as I hadn't considered working as a ghostwriter. But, I accepted the contract.

Now, that CIO has become one of my best clients. He's recommended me to his colleagues and he's probably responsible for 20% of the clients on my books.

And I nearly turned him down because I "wasn't sure" if I wanted to ghostwrite.

The thought of the opportunities I would have lost if I hadn't accepted his offer still makes me shudder.

When you're starting out, it's vital to try and practice your craft on a daily basis. This will help you to build your skills, find your voice and create a signature style that will (again) make you stand out from the crowd.

It's important to take inspiration from others in your industry, but be original in that work. Create something that you love and is fun to work on.

For example, my Sunday Science blog (where I explain science with Lego) started off as a fun way to keep me blogging on a weekly basis. It's now snowballed and I have hundreds of subscribers to the weekly newsletter. It's also been another way for me to find work as I regularly get emails from readers of the blog who want me to write for them.

Work experience is a great way to build your portfolio of work. Don't be put off if a company or individual doesn't advertise that they offer work experience - send them a cheeky pitch for work anyway (more on pitching later).

You may want to approach companies from different industries too. Again, it's about throwing the net as wide as possible and seeing if you can catch a break.

When you're at university, you could also volunteer for a student society. For example, if you want to be a freelance web designer - find a society with a lousy website and ask if you can redesign it for them.

And every time you do a chunk of work experience, put it in your portfolio. Write down what you did, the skills you gained and the people you met. 

Work experience is, essentially, an extended job interview where you'll meet people working in the industry. So, make a good impression and start forging connections.

Finding work as a freelancer often comes down to whom you know. Which leads me to my next point...

Go to industry events and talks. Check out the IPSE events page and come along to a talk. Get out there.

I'll be honest, I've been networking for 15 years now and I still find it a bit scary. But, try to get involved and have a chat with the other attendees. Sometimes opportunities will come your way from the most random conversations and connections you make.

Online networking is another necessity when you're building your pool of resources. So, identify a social network (or networks) that matches your work and go for it. Connect with thought leaders and comment on their posts.

LinkedIn is a must-have for most industries. Make sure you have an account and that it's up to date with all your latest projects. And put your specialism at the very top of your profile.

Get a website. It doesn't have to be anything fancy, just a page telling people who you are, what you do and your portfolio of work (with some contact details) is all it takes.

When you pitch to companies or individuals for work, be smart. 

I always start with a short introductory email. It helps if you have a personal contact but, if you don't, I'd recommend a sneaky little tool called ahrefs. This provides a small button in your browser that you can click when you're on a company website and it'll give you the email addresses of people at that company.

Make sure every pitch is tailored to that company.

DO NOT send the same generic email to 100 companies. It will be deleted.

Tell people who you are, what you do and how you can help them.

Do that in 2-3 sentences and provide a link to find out more. 

Something like:

Dear [insert contact's name],

My name's Gemma Church and I'm the freelance writer who gets tech.

I noticed [insert company name] hasn't updated its blog in a while.

As a specialist science and technology writer, I believe I could create some compelling content for your site. [Give examples here]

You can find out more about my work here. And, if you fancy a chat, my number is 01223 926205.

Thanks, Gemma

If you don't hear anything back, you could give them a quick phone call and ask to speak to someone in the marketing department. Or you could fire out another email.

The main thing is to be personal and proactive when pitching.

There are a lot of freelance job finding websites out there. Just do a quick Google search.

​While they are a great way to find people and (most) offer payment protection so you aren't left chasing a client over an invoice, there are some disadvantages.

For example, the website will take a cut from your fee and these jobs can be poorly paid compared to the industry average. After all, you'll be pitching for work with people around the world. It can be difficult to compete in this space.

Also, a handy tip is to search for jobs that aren't necessarily advertised as a freelance position. In particular, if you notice a post has been around for a while, the company in question is clearly struggling to fill that post.

So, give the HR department a call and ask if you could help them fill that skills gap?

This was probably the overriding advice from all the freelancers at the IPSE event.

Finding work as a freelancer is tough. You have to continually pitch and promote yourself across multiple platforms and to multiple people to get the work in.

Then, sometimes, you'll get an avalanche of work and wish you had that 9-5 job.

​Other times, you're twiddling your thumbs and panicking about the lack of work.

But it's totally worth it.

Because freelancing gives you the opportunity to do something you truly love. It gives you the freedom to set your own goals and fulfill your ambitions.

Some days, you'll work 5-9.

And you won't care.

​Because you'll love it.

In the last 10 days, we were treated to a Super Blue Blood Moon AND the first flight of the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. If Musk's dreams are realised, we may be shuttling humans to and from the Moon in a matter of years.

It's so exciting to see space travel peaking the world's interest again. And, for most interstellar journeys, it all starts with the Moon.

Our Moon is quite unusual compared to other moons in the Solar System because it is the largest moon compared to the size of its host planet. Big Moons should orbit big planets. 

But that's assuming that our Moon formed in the same way many other moons did: when a planet is forming, some of the material is pulled together to form a moon. This is known as accretion.

But our Moon's composition is too dissimilar to the Earth for this to have happened. So, we believe the Moon was formed when a Mars-size body called Theia collided with the early Earth. Dramatic stuff.

Sadly, not cheese. It's predominantly made of rock and the dusty surface is covered with impact craters and dead volcanoes. These craters formed from asteroid collision millions of years ago but, because there's no weather, you can still see them today.

One of the goals of the Apollo 16 mission was to "pick up rocks", according to astronaut Charlie Duke. The Apollo 16 mission collected nearly 213 pounds of rock and soil samples and, despite extensive geological training, Charlie admitted they chose to "pick up one of every colour" on the lunar surface. 

Under the surface, the Moon is likely to have a small core of iron and a thick mantle of rocks rich in iron and magnesium.

Here's a final interesting fact about the Moon and its average 238,855 mile distance from the Earth. You could fit every planet in the Solar System between the Moon and Earth.

Yes. The Moon's gravity pulls the Earth and causes the tides in our oceans. The pull of the Moon is also slowing the Earth's rotation down, causing every day to increase by 2.3 milliseconds every century. And the Moon is also getting 1.5 inches further away from the Earth every year.

We also believe that the Moon's gravitational effect on the Earth caused it to tilt at just the right angle to produce  a relatively stable climate over billions of years. This effect, combined with the planet's tides, allowed life to flourish. 

So, if there was no Moon, there may be no life on Earth.

If you want to find out more about exploration of the Moon, this post from National Geographic is a great starting point. And here are some great lunar stats.

SpaceX is not the only entity interested in going to the Moon. Five missions are planned in 2018, including: a Chinese mission to land a rover on the far side and the Chandrayaan-2, which has been developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation and will include a moon orbiter and a rover.

Two of the other lunar missions will be privately-funded. These are Hakuto, a group of space professionals inspired by Google’s Lunar X Prize, and Part-Time Scientists, a group of volunteer scientists and engineers based in Germany that plan to use SpaceX rockets and deploy two rovers. Finally, NASA’s TESS will also perform a flyby of the Moon.

The colonisation of the Moon is another fascinating prospect. And one that we're getting closer to realising. And if you're wondering why we should go to the Moon in the first place, this post from NASA is a rich pool of resources. 

​There's also great fun to be had on the Moon, if this video is anything to go by:

 Wormholes are theoretical passages through space-time that could create shortcuts across the universe.

They're also a staple sci-fi phenomenon and are predicted by the theory of General Relativity.

Let's take a step back and we need to understand a few other scientific terms. General Relativity predicts the existence of Black Holes - singularities in space that are infinitely small and infinitely dense with such a strong gravitational pull that nothing (not even light) can escape there pull once you get close enough to one (past a line known as the event horizon).
 
Then, in 1916, Austrian physicist Ludwig Flamm took the concept of black holes and noticed another solution was possible - a white hole. As the name suggests, this is the opposite of a black hole and ejects matter from its event horizon.

White holes have a lot of jolly interesting consequences. Some suggest the Big Bang might have been the result of a supermassive white hole.

But (and here's where we get to wormholes) Flamm also suggested that black holes and white holes may be connected by some sort of tunnel through space-time. This tunnel provides a shortcut between two areas of space-time.

Some 20 years later, American theoretical physicist John Archibald Wheeler coined the phrase "wormhole" to describe that tunnel connecting black and white holes.

Maybe... but there are several rather large (or small) issues to overcome. The first is to do with size: wormholes are predicted to exist on microscopic levels (a thousandth of a million, million, million, million, million centimetres). However, as the universe expands, then so could the size of a wormhole.

Second, wormholes aren't very stable and, therefore, don't last very long (unless they're filled with exotic material like negative matter).

But that's not deterred some scientists. A recent article by physicist Ethan Siegel detailed how humans could travel through a wormhole.

Wormholes are a hot topic in science and NASA even dedicated $1.2 million to its "Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project" between 1996 and 2002, which studied various proposals for revolutionary space travel theories that would require major breakthroughs in physics to be realised.

This is a more in-depth article about wormholes and this lecture from Stephen Hawking covers the possibilities of time travel using wormholes.